Contributors xii
Introduction xvi
Section 1 Setting the Scene
Chapter 1 Research and Development in Nursing 3
Kate Gerrish and Anne Lacey
Introduction 3
Nursing research and development 4
Developing nursing knowledge 6
Research awareness, utilisation and
activity 8
Research and nursing practice 9
Conclusions 10
References 11
Websites 11
Chapter 2 The Research Process 13
Anne Lacey
Introduction 13
Developing the research question 14
Using a hypothesis 18
Searching and evaluating the literature 18
Choice of methodology, research design 19
Preparing a research proposal 20
Gaining access to the data 21
Sampling 22
Pilot study 22
Data collection 23
Data analysis 23
Dissemination of the results 24
Implementation of the results 24
Ensuring rigour 24
Conclusions 25
References 25
Websites 26
Chapter 3 Research Ethics 27
Martin Johnson and Tony Long
The importance of ethics in research 27
Issues for researchers to address 28
Strategies for ethical research 32
Conclusions 34
References 34
Websites 35
Chapter 4 User Involvement in Research 36
Gordon Grant and Paul Ramcharan
Introduction 36
A brief history of user involvement in
research 37
Mapping user involvement in nursing
research 38
Challenges for user involvement in
nursing research 44
Weighing user experiences – learning
disability as a case example 45
Shifting the focus from processes to
outcomes 46
Conclusions 46
References 47
Further reading 48
Websites 48
Chapter 5 Research for a Multi-ethnic Society 50
Sarah Salway and George Ellison
Introduction 50
The concept of ethnicity 52
Identifying a research focus 54
Ethnic categories and labels 55
Sampling 57
Data collection 58
Data analysis and interpretation 59
Ethical issues 59
Contents
Contents
vi
Conclusions 60
References 60
Further reading 61
Websites 61
Section 2 Preparing the Ground
Chapter 6 Finding the Evidence 65
Claire Beecroft, Andrew Booth
and Angie Rees
Introduction 65
Electronic information resources
and the internet 65
The research literature 66
Accessing the literature 67
Planning a literature search 69
Searching the literature 72
Specialist information sources 74
Writing a literature review 75
Managing references 75
Conclusions 77
References 77
Further reading 78
Websites 78
Chapter 7 Critical Appraisal of the Evidence 79
Angie Rees, Claire Beecroft
and Andrew Booth
Introduction 79
What is critical appraisal? 80
The need for critical appraisal 81
Validity of research designs 81
How to appraise quantitative research
studies 82
How to appraise qualitative research
studies 83
How to appraise systematic reviews,
practice guidelines and economic
analysis 89
Applying the results of critical appraisal 89
Conclusions 91
References 91
Further reading 92
Chapter 8 Preparing a Research Proposal 93
Julie Taylor
Introduction 93
Identifying a research idea 94
Identifying sources of funding 94
The research proposal 95
Submission requirements 101
Maximising success 101
Conclusions 102
Reference 102
Further reading 102
Websites 103
Chapter 9 Planning and Managing
a Research Project 104
Carol Haigh
Introduction 104
Identifying and finding funding 104
Academic and practical support 105
Types of supervisor 106
Supervision selection criteria 107
The responsibilities of the supervisor 107
The responsibilities of the student 109
Sources of emotional and peer support 111
Conclusions 112
References 112
Websites 113
Chapter 10 Gaining Access to the Research
Site 114
Leslie Gelling
Introduction 114
The need for regulation of research 115
Research ethics 116
R&D approval 122
Informal access to research sites 123
Building the approval process into
research planning 124
Conclusions 125
References 125
Further reading 125
Websites 125
Section 3 Choosing the Right Approach
Chapter 11 The Quantitative–Qualitative
Continuum 129
Annie Topping
Introduction 129
The characteristics of quantitative
and qualitative research 130
Influences and contributions to the
development of nursing research 130
Empiricism and the scientific method 131
Quantitative research 134
Qualitative research 135
Critical accounts of research
epistemology 137
Blending quantitative and qualitative
approaches 138
Contents
vii
Judging the quality of quantitative
and qualitative research 138
Conclusions 139
References 139
Websites 141
Chapter 12 Sampling 142
Susan Procter, Teresa Allan
and Anne Lacey
Introduction 142
Populations and samples 142
Types of sampling 144
Sampling schemes in quantitative
research 145
Calculating sample size in quantitative
research 147
Sources of bias in quantitative
sampling 148
Sampling in qualitative research 148
Calculating sample size in qualitative
research 150
Sampling strategies used in qualitative
and quantitative research 151
Conclusions 152
References 152
Further reading 152
Chapter 13 Grounded Theory 153
Immy Holloway and Les Todres
Introduction 153
The purpose and main features of
grounded theory 154
The relevance of grounded theory in
nursing research 154
The theoretical basis of grounded
theory: symbolic interactionism 155
Data collection and initial sampling 156
Data analysis 157
The theory 160
Writing memos 160
The use of literature in grounded theory 161
The choice between Glaserian and
Straussian grounded theory 161
Problems and strengths of grounded
theory 162
Conclusions 163
References 163
Further reading 164
Website 164
Chapter 14 Ethnography 165
Immy Holloway and Les Todres
Introduction 165
The characteristics of ethnography 166
The use of ethnography in nursing 167
Descriptive and critical ethnography 168
Selection of sample and setting 169
Data collection 170
Fieldwork and fieldnotes 172
Macro- and micro-ethnographies 172
Data analysis and interpretation 172
Relationships and problems in the
setting 174
The ethnographic report 174
Conclusions 175
References 175
Further reading 176
Chapter 15 Phenomenological Research 177
Les Todres and Immy Holloway
Introduction 177
The purpose of phenomenological
research 177
The use of phenomenology in nursing 179
Main features 179
Fieldwork 182
Analytical procedures 183
Strengths and limitations 185
Conclusions 186
References 187
Further reading 187
Websites 187
Chapter 16 Narrative Research 188
Dawn Freshwater and
Immy Holloway
Introduction 188
The nature and purpose of stories 189
Narrative inquiry in nursing 191
Illness narratives or stories of sickness 192
Ethical issues in narrative research 193
Collecting and analysing narrative data 194
Critical issues in narrative inquiry 195
Writing and reporting narrative research 196
Conclusions 197
References 197
Further reading 198
Chapter 17 Experimental Research 199
Andrea Nelson, Jo Dumville
and David Torgerson
Background 199
Experimental versus observational
studies 199
Characteristics of experimental design 200
Pre-/post-test studies 201
Interrupted time series 203
Contents
viii
Controlled before and after studies 203
Controlled trials 203
The randomised controlled trial (RCT) 204
Randomised controlled trials and the
reduction of bias 206
Other experimental designs 209
Single-case experimental design
(n of 1 trial) 210
Reporting and reading of RCTs 212
Important considerations in using RCTs 212
Strengths and limitations of RCTs 213
Conclusions 214
References 214
Websites 215
Chapter 18 Surveys 216
Hugh McKenna, Felicity Hasson
and Sinead Keeney
Historical development of survey
research in health 216
Descriptive surveys 217
Correlational and comparative surveys 218
Longitudinal surveys and cohort
studies 219
Sources of data in survey research 220
Epidemiology 223
Conclusions 224
References 225
Further reading 225
Websites 226
Chapter 19 The Delphi Technique 227
Sinead Keeney
Introduction 227
Defining the Delphi technique 228
The expert panel 228
Delphi rounds 230
Response rates 231
Modifications of the Delphi technique 231
Time frame 232
Anonymity 232
Gaining consensus 233
Interpreting results 233
Skills of the researcher 233
Critique of the technique 234
Ethical considerations 234
Conclusions 235
References 235
Further reading 236
Websites 236
Chapter 20 Case Study Research 237
Charlotte L Clarke and Jan Reed
Introduction 237
Definitions of case study methodology 239
Research questions 240
Selection of cases 240
Research design 242
Data analysis 243
Presentation and reporting 246
Conclusions 247
References 247
Chapter 21 Evaluation Research 248
Colin Robson
What is evaluation? 248
Why evaluation research? 248
The satisfaction questionnaire 249
Models of evaluation 249
Quantitative or qualitative? 253
The political nature of evaluation 254
Evaluation research and
evidence-based practice 254
Conclusions 255
References 255
Further reading 256
Websites 256
Chapter 22 Action Research 257
Julienne Meyer
Principles of action research 257
Common models of working with
action research in nursing 258
Action research in healthcare
practice 259
The role of the researcher in action
research 263
Ethical issues 264
Methods of data collection 264
Assessing quality 266
Research as an agent of change 267
Advantages and disadvantages of
action research 268
Conclusions 269
References 269
Further reading 270
Websites 270
Chapter 23 Practitioner Research 271
Jan Reed
Introduction 271
Background to practitioner research 272
Insider and outsider positions 275
Reflecting on the practitioner
research process 276
Ethical issues 281
Conclusions 282
References 282
Contents
ix
Chapter 24 Systematic Reviews and Evidence
Syntheses 284
Andrew Booth, Angie Rees
and Claire Beecroft
Introduction 284
Background to evidence synthesis 284
Writing a systematic review protocol 288
Systematically searching the literature 289
Assessing the quality of the literature 292
Extracting key information from the
selected studies 294
Summarising, interpreting and
presenting the findings 294
Writing up the review 297
Systematic reviews of qualitative
research 297
Conclusions 300
References 300
Further reading 301
Websites 302
Chapter 25 Realist Synthesis 303
Jo Rycroft-Malone,
Brendan McCormack,
Kara DeCorby and
Alison Hutchinson
Introduction 303
Realist synthesis: philosophy and
principles 304
Realist synthesis: examples 304
Stages in conducting a realist
synthesis 304
Data synthesis 314
Narrative construction 317
Strengths and limitations of realist
synthesis 318
Conclusions 319
Acknowledgements 319
References 319
Chapter 26 Historical Research 321
Anne Marie Rafferty
and Rosemary Wall
Introduction 321
Why study history? 322
Shifting sands 323
Voyage of discovery or journey
without maps? 324
Pilgrims of progress? 325
Intricacies of interpretation 326
Calculating change 327
Repertoire of resources 328
Conclusions 328
References 329
Websites 330
Chapter 27 Mixed Methods 331
Lucy Simons and Judith Lathlean
Defining mixed methods 331
Why mixed methods? 332
Can methods be mixed? 333
The purpose of using mixed methods
research 334
The importance of integration in mixed
methods research 337
Challenges with mixed method studies 339
Conclusions 341
References 341
Further reading 342
Websites 342
Section 4 Collecting Data
Chapter 28 Interviewing 345
Angela Tod
Introduction 345
The purpose of the research interview 345
Types of interview 348
Undertaking an interview 350
Conducting the interview 352
Common pitfalls in conducting
interviews 353
Advantages and disadvantages of
interviews 354
Validity and reliability 355
Ethical issues with interviewing 355
Conclusions 356
References 357
Website 357
Chapter 29 Focus Groups 358
Claire Goodman and
Catherine Evans
The purpose of focus groups 358
Conducting a focus group 359
Data analysis 364
Issues of validity and reliability 365
Advantages of focus groups 365
Limitations of focus groups 366
Ethical issues 367
Conclusions 367
References 367
Further reading 368
Chapter 30 Questionnaire Design 369
Martyn Jones and Janice Rattray
Introduction 369
The purpose of questionnaires 370
Contents
x
Using and adapting previously
validated questionnaires 370
Reliability 370
Validity 372
Developing a questionnaire 373
Administering questionnaires 377
Piloting 378
Response rates 378
Comparison between face-to-face
structured interviews and postal
questionnaires 378
Strengths and limitations of
questionnaires 379
Ethical issues associated with
questionnaires 379
Conclusions 380
References 380
Chapter 31 Observation 382
Hazel Watson, Jo Booth
and Rosemary Whyte
The purpose of observation 382
Participant observation 385
Non-participant observation 387
Advantages and disadvantages of
observation 391
Validity and reliability 392
Ethical issues associated with
observation 392
Conclusions 393
References 393
Chapter 32 Think Aloud Technique 395
Tracey Bucknall and
Leanne M Aitken
Introduction 395
What is thinking aloud? 395
Background to thinking aloud 396
Applying think aloud in nursing research 396
How to use think aloud 397
Recruitment 397
Data collection 400
Data analysis 401
Validity and reliability 402
Ethical issues 404
Strengths and limitations 404
Conclusions 405
References 405
Chapter 33 Outcome Measures 408
Peter Griffiths and
Anne Marie Rafferty
Introduction 408
Nurse-sensitive outcomes 409
Outcomes versus process 411
Characteristics of measures 411
Validity and reliability 414
Bias in measurement 416
Selecting outcome measures 416
Other considerations in identifying
outcomes 417
Using clinical data and other routinely
collected data in research 418
Conclusions 419
References 419
Further reading 420
Section 5 Making Sense of the Data
Chapter 34 Qualitative Analysis 423
Judith Lathlean
Introduction 423
Principles of qualitative analysis 423
Examples of methods of analysis 425
Practicalities 430
Examples of analyses 432
Using computer software for
qualitative data analysis 435
Conclusions 435
References 435
Further reading 436
Websites 436
Chapter 35 Descriptive Analysis
of Quantitative Data 437
Stephen Walters and
Jenny Freeman
Introduction 437
Data types 437
Recording data 439
Presenting data in graphs 442
Describing data 446
Presenting data and results in tables 451
Conclusions 453
References 453
Further reading 453
Websites 453
Chapter 36 Examining Relationships
in Quantitative Data 455
Jenny Freeman
and Stephen Walters
Introduction 455
Statistical analysis 455
Choosing the statistical method 459
The relationship between two
continuous variables 465
Contents
xi
Conclusions 472
Reference 472
Further reading 472
Section 6 Putting Research into
Practice
Chapter 37 Disseminating Research Findings 475
Kate Gerrish and Anne Lacey
Introduction 475
Communicating with different audiences 475
The research report 476
Writing an article for publication 476
Preparing a report for the public 480
Presenting research at a conference 480
Networking opportunities, research
partnerships and collaborations 485
Conclusions 486
References 486
Further reading 486
Websites 486
Chapter 38 Evidence-based Practice 488
Kate Gerrish
Introduction 488
The nature of ‘evidence’ in
evidence-based practice 489
Hierarchies of evidence 493
Research utilisation 493
The process of evidence-based
practice 495
Barriers to achieving evidence-based
practice 496
Implementing evidence-based practice 497
Conclusions 497
References 498
Further reading 499
Websites 499
Chapter 39 Translating Research Findings
into Practice 501
Kate Gerrish
Introduction 501
Translating research findings into
research products 502
Clinical guidelines 503
Knowledge translation frameworks 506
The Knowledge to Action framework 507
Interventions to promote behavioural
change 510
Achieving change 512
Conclusions 513
References 513
Websites 514
Chapter 40 The Future of Nursing Research 515
Ann McMahon
Introduction 515
UK health research policy 515
UK nursing research policy 517
Nursing research: five policy
imperatives 518
Conclusions 524
References 525
Websites